UNIT 4 - MEMORY MANGEMENT TECHNIQUES Absolute code is machine code in which memory addresses are fixed at compile time. 🔹 Characteristics Generated when the starting memory address is known. Contains actual physical addresses . Must be loaded at the same location every time. If location changes → program must be recompiled . 🔹 Example If the compiler assumes the program starts at address 1000 , all instructions will use addresses relative to 1000 only. Relocatable code is machine code that can be loaded at any memory location. 🔹 Characteristics Generated when starting address is not known at compile time. Uses relative addresses . Loader adjusts addresses when program is loaded. More flexible than absolute code. 🔹 Example If a program is compiled assuming it starts at address 0, and it is loaded at 5...
UNIT 4 Network Layer - Design Issues - Routing Algorithms – Congestion Control Algorithms – IP Protocol – IP Addresses – Internet Control Protocols. Why do we study Network Layer Design Issues ? We study network layer design issues because the network layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery of data across multiple networks , not just a single link. 1. It enables end-to-end communication 🌍 Unlike the data link layer (which only moves frames over one physical link ), the network layer ensures that a packet: Starts at the source host Travels through multiple routers Reaches the final destination host Without proper network layer design, large networks like the Internet simply cannot function. 2. It decides how packets travel (Routing & Path Selection) 🧭 The network layer must: Understand the network topology (routers + links) Choose the best path among many possible routes Adapt when links fail or congest...
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